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| Northern Ireland |
Ireland |
Population: 1,550,000
Land Area: A wee small place
Capital: London (national), Belfast (provincial)
People: British, Irish
Religion: Protestant 60%
Catholic 40% |
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| Northern Ireland is a land of
contradictions, in its land, its people, and its politics. Its story is
as fascinating, as it is tragic; as intellectually compelling, as it is
violent; and as complicated as it is simple. For centuries, England has
governed the people of Northern Ireland and has created and perpetuated
the social conditions fueling conflict and violence that have plagued the
province for 30 years, or 300 years, depending on when you start counting.
It’s a beautiful, pastoral, land with 40 shades of green, beneath a
dark cloud of enduring anger, sadness and suffering. |
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| "The Troubles" in
Northern Ireland really began when the British granted independence to the
26 of 32 counties in 1920 and partitioned the island, dividing the Irish
people and imposing a different British identity on the North. In the decades
following partition, the Irish people might have adapted and accepted the
situation, but the governing class exploited and discriminated against the
Irish minority, establishing an oppressive state and denying basic rights.
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| Since 1969, the provincial
death toll has grown to about 3500 in an area whose population is only about
1.6 million. A comparable relative death toll in America would be about
560,000. The British have imposed an Emergency Powers Act (EPA), the Prevention
of Terrorism Act (PTA) and maintain a military force of about 18,000, supporting
the RUC police force of 12,000. The RUC forces are reported to maintain
161 fortified bases, with the British army occupying 135 military bases.
Belfast, alone, houses 56 military installations. Armored convoys and armed
foot-patrols are common in Nationalist areas, even during cease-fire periods
and army "forts" loom above the normal landscape, while helicopters
hover incessantly overhead all day, every day. |
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| Often portrayed as a religious
conflict, this notion is inaccurate. Political and religious leaders have
skillfully exploited religious differences to manipulate, justify, inflame,
divide or unite people, creating a culture of sectarian prejudice that either
supports the existing power structure, or seeks reform, or reunification
with Ireland. Unionists and Loyalists who seek to maintain a part of Great
Britain are usually Protestants, who see themselves as British. Nationalists
and Republicans are typically Catholic and see themselves as Irish. |
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| In 1998, after 30 years of low
intensity conflict, voters accepted the Good Friday Peace Agreement. The
agreement calls for a cease-fire, weapons decommissioning, and establishment
of a devolved power-sharing government. Under the Agreement Ireland abandons
it’s territorial claim to the 6 northern counties, while England agrees
that N. Ireland citizens have the right of self-determination, although
the process is vague. It also establishes an elected assembly, the first
since Britain imposed direct rule in 1972. Other provisions set up an all-Ireland
North-South body, a Council of the Isles, enshrine the promise of human
rights, equality, justice and promote the Irish language and culture. Britain
replaced the Special Powers Act with the Terrorism Act 2000, which extends
the special police and judicial powers that have exacerbated the conflict.
The police can still detain and interrogate individuals and search houses
without a warrant. Suspects can still be convicted in non-jury trials (Diplock
courts), using special rules of evidence. Reform of the Royal Ulster Constabulary
(RUC), the 93%-Protestant police force, has focused on adopting a new name
and emblems. |
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| Decommissioning of weapons has
remained a contentious, mainly symbolic issue. Although the IRA receives
the most notoriety, there is a plethora of armed groups involved in the
violence. None have turned in any substantial numbers of weapons and all
could easily acquire replacement weapons. |
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Armed Government Groups:
The British Army, Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC)
Armed Republican Groups:
The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), Irish National Liberation Army
(INLA), the Real IRA (RIRA), the Continuity IRA (CIRA)
Armed Loyalist Groups:
The Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) Ulster
Defence Association (UDA), Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF), Red Hand Defenders
and Red Hand Commandos |
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| As moderate political leaders
attempt to implement the peace agreement, hardliners at both ends of the
political spectrum oppose and obstruct progress. Northern Ireland continues
to suffer from institutionalized segregation and sectarian violence, primarily
targeting Catholics. |
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| The Roots of Conflict |
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In 1610, England enacted the Articles of
Plantation, confiscated land from the native Irish then transferred ownership
to people loyal to the Crown. These early loyalists from Scotland and England
were "planted" on the rich land, while the native Irish were driven
to the rocky hinterlands, or into servitude. These Planters were generally
Protestants. The displaced Irish rose in rebellion in 1641, slaughtering
thousands of loyalists and in 1649 the English under Oliver Cromwell, returned
the favor, slaughtering thousands of Irish. In 1689, the Irish rebelled
again, with support from the deposed English King James II, a Catholic,
aided by the French. In 1690, the new English monarch, William of Orange,
defeated the Irish rebels at the Battle of the Boyne. Loyalists still celebrate
this victory by marching every year on July 12th. Obviously, such marches
are unpopular with Irish Catholics, especially when routed through their
communities. |
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| The English introduced Penal Laws in 1695
to persecute the Catholic Church and its followers. These laws banned Catholics
from public office, the legal profession and military. They were not permitted
to vote, teach or maintain Catholic schools, or purchase land. Church services
were held in secret. |
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| In 1845, Ireland suffered the
Great Famine, caused by crop failures over successive years. Faced with
starvation and abject poverty about 1.5 million Irish fled to other lands,
namely America, while another million starved to death in Ireland, or died
on the "coffin ships" headed to America. During the famine years
England continued to import meat from Ireland, while the Irish starved.
Many Irish have never forgiven England for failing to intervene and argue
that the English policy amounted to genocide against the Irish race. By
1900, Irish Catholics owned only about 7% of their homeland and were doomed
to their destiny as an underclass. |
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| In 1916, an uprising occurred
in Dublin on Easter Monday, marking the beginning of the end for English
rule in Ireland. It also marked the beginnings of the Irish Republican Army
(IRA). The rebels were apprehended, but had little public support until
the British began assassinating them by firing squads. One rebel, James
Connelly, unable to walk, was tied to a chair and executed. Instead of quelling
the rebellion, the British actions infuriated the Irish and precipitated
a guerrilla war. The Irish rebels prevailed and in 1920, England agreed
to grant independence and in 1922 the Irish Free State, Eire, was formed. |
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| England demanded the partition
of Ireland. Ireland was comprised of 32 counties, organized into 4 provinces.
England sought to maintain control over Ulster, the northernmost province,
made up of 9 counties. To ensure control, the British partitioned Ulster,
releasing 3 counties with large Catholic majorities to the free state, leaving
Ulster with 6 counties and a Protestant-to-Catholic ratio of about 2 to
1. In effect, the British manipulated boundaries to reverse the nature of
the population on the island. In the six counties of the North, a Special
Powers Act was imposed and an auxiliary police force called the B-Specials
was established. Since then, the Province has never been without a Special
Powers law, limiting human and civil rights. In 1949, Eire became the Republic
of Ireland. |
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| The Troubles 1969-Present |
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| In the late 1960’s, a civil
rights movement took shape in Northern Ireland, patterned after that in
the United States. Key issues were demands to repeal the Special Powers
Act (SPA), to disband the sectarian B-Specials, fair housing, fair employment,
fair education, fair treatment before the law and voting reforms. In response,
the government banned civil rights marches under the SPA, but the marches
continued, provoking violent confrontations in London/Derry in January 1969.
Skirmishes continued during the summer marching season and in August, residents
of the Bogside area in Derry erected barricades around their community and
declared a "Free Derry." |
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| In Belfast events echoed the
conflict in Derry. Protestant mobs attacked Catholic communities and hundreds
of homes were burned and destroyed. Overwhelmed, the police sided with their
Protestant brethren and the IRA resurfaced to defend Catholics. British
troops were sent into the province and have never left. |
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| As IRA activity increased, the
British introduced Internment on 9 August 1971, arrested hundreds of Catholics,
without charges or trial, while torturing them to gain information on suspected
IRA activities. The intent was to remove dissidents from the community;
its effect was the opposite and IRA enlistment mushroomed. |
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| Civil rights demonstrations
continued and on "Bloody Sunday", January 30, 1972, the British
Parachute Regiment opened fire on a peaceful demonstration in Derry, killing
13 unarmed Catholics. The IRA retaliated with bombings and shootings. In
March the British suspended the Stormont government and imposed direct rule
over the province, which has continued ever since. |
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| On Bloody Sunday in July 1972,
the IRA exploded twenty-two bombs in Belfast, killing nine and causing extensive
damage to the city center. By the end of 1972, the death toll was 474, with
most attributed to the IRA. As a result of internal disputes, the IRA split
and the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) emerged as the dominant
Republican force. |
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| In 1973 and 1974, the IRA first
brought the war to mainland Britain, with a series of bombing attacks at
the Tower of London and pubs in Birmingham and Guildford. In 1980 prisoners
at HMP Maze (Long Kesh) prison went on hunger strike over demands for treatment
as POW’s, not criminals. Prisoner Bobby Sands was elected to the British
Parliament, before he and 9 others died on hunger strike. |
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| After admitting that its Ulster
Defence Regiment (UDR) had murdered up to 30 people, Britain introduced
the Special Air Services (SAS) in 1982 and together with the RUC initiated
a shoot to kill policy targeting alleged IRA activists. The IRA strategy
changed from waging war in Northern Ireland by the decision taken to again
bring the war to England in hopes of driving public opinion toward a British
withdrawal from Northern Ireland. IRA volunteers had developed considerable
expertise at detonating large 1000 lb. bombs and attacked such high-profile
targets as Hyde Park, Regent’s Park and the famous Harrod’s department
store. Prime Minister Thatcher narrowly escaped a bomb blast in Brighton
hotel that killed five people, including an MP. |
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| Britain and Ireland enacted
the Anglo-Irish Agreement in 1985, pressuring the IRA as Ireland increased
its anti-terrorist activities in cooperation with Britain. Relations with
the Republic of Ireland were hurt further after the Enniskillen bombing
in 1987 killed 11 civilians and prompted protest marches against the IRA. |
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| The IRA again redirected its
assault to Britain, bombing a military base and launching mortars against
10 Downing Street, the Prime Minister’s residence. Additional bombs
were detonated against economic targets in Belfast, the Baltic exchange
in London’s financial district and a massive bomb at Bishopsgate, causing
over $1 billion in damage. As a result, secret discussions led to the Downing
Street Declaration and the beginnings of the peace negotiation process.
The IRA declared a cease-fire in August 1994. Frustrated by 18 months of
protracted disagreements, the IRA resumed bombings in 1996, with another
massive strike at London’s Docklands business area and another inside
Britain’s Thievpal military barracks near Belfast. |
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| In 1997, the British elected
Prime Minister Tony Blair, breaking the control of the conservatives and
raising prospects for a settlement. In August 1997, the IRA agreed to another
cease-fire, followed by renewed peace negotiations that culminated in the
Good Friday Agreement in 1998. |
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| The Good Friday Agreement
- 1998 |
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| A referendum was held quickly
and the Agreement was approved by an impressive 71% "Yes" vote.
Under the Agreement Ireland abandons it’s territorial claim to the
6 northern counties, while England agrees that N. Ireland citizens have
the right of self-determination, although the process is vague. It also
establishes an elected assembly, the first since Britain imposed direct
rule in 1972. Other provisions set up an all-Ireland North-South body, a
Council of the Isles, enshrine the promise of human rights, equality, justice
and promote the Irish language and culture. It all sounds good and time
will tell if people are willing to compromise to maintain an uneasy peace. |
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| However, several major, contentious
issues are ill defined, including weapons decommissioning, prisoner releases,
reform of the RUC police force and resolution of the parades conflict and
British troop withdrawals. The referendum was greeted with muted optimism.
As Sinn Fein President Gerry Adams said, "the struggle has simply moved
to a new arena". |
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| Issues & Aspirations |
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| Loyalists or Unionists (a.k.a.
Protestants) see themselves as British and want to maintain a part of the
United Kingdom. Nationalists and Republicans (a.k.a. Catholics), see themselves
as Irish and aspire to a united Ireland. There are few intermediate positions.
However, some Republicans admit that if there were equality and justice
in Northern Ireland, the drive for unification with Ireland would not be
worth fighting for. Conversely, some Unionists would welcome the peace and
prosperity of Ireland, if taxes were lower. |
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| Republicans want the British
army out of Ireland and the RUC police force disbanded. The Royal Ulster
Constabulary (RUC) is a state police force comprised of about 93% Protestants
and 7% Catholics. They want a new police service that’s accountable
to the public. They want equal services and facilities from government and
equal employment opportunity. They want the freedom to live anywhere and
work anywhere, free from fear and intimidation. They want political prisoners
released from jails. They want the Emergency Powers Act and Prevention of
Terrorism Act repealed. They want a reformed judicial system with proper
rules of evidence and trial by jury. They want assurances that they can
freely and openly maintain their Irish traditions and culture. (In 1998,
Belfast had its first St. Patrick’s Day parade. This traditional, festive
Irish holiday, celebrated worldwide, had previously been denied to the Irish
in Northern Ireland.) |
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| Sectarian
Marches |
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| The marching issue defines the
Northern Ireland problem in microcosm. Marching season is a bizarre ritual
that starts in April and runs through November. It’s a time of traditional
parades, some 3000 of them, primarily those of Protestant groups known as
Loyal Orange Lodges. Although there are about 3000 parades, only a few are
contentious and these are generally in areas where there are relatively
small, isolated and vulnerable Catholic communities. Current attention has
focused on the Drumcree parade along Garvaghy Road in Portadown and a series
of parades targeted on the Lower Ormeau Road in Belfast. |
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| In some parades the bands representing
Loyalist paramilitary groups play sectarian tunes as they intentionally
pass through Catholic neighborhoods. Naturally, residents object to these
triumphalist displays, just as black communities would object to Ku Klux
Klan parades, or Jews would object to Nazi parades through their communities.
Beleaguered Catholics have had enough and refuse to consent to such parades.
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| The government spends millions
building peace walls to segregate communities to avoid discord, yet permits
provocative parades by the Loyal Orange Lodges (LOL) through Catholic areas.
The simple solution would be to prohibit such parades, where they aren’t
welcome, but the LOL objects, claiming a right to march. Where the government
has banned marches, the LOL and hard-line supporters try to march anyway,
confronting police with violence. In the most damaging situation at Drumcree
in 1996, the RUC banned the Orange Order parade, the Order confronted the
RUC with a threat of statewide violence and the RUC reversed it’s decision
and used it’s might to force the march through Catholic Garvaghy Road.
The result was days of rioting widespread violence, and tens of millions
in property damage.Marching remains an incendiary issue of the latter 1990’s;
a predictable flashpoint event and a litmus test of government attitudes
and resolve. |
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